• A Brief Account of Human Evolution for Young Minds · Frontiers for Young Minds

    Core Concept Biodiversity Published: March 20, 2019

    A Brief Account of Human Evolution for Young Minds

    Abstract

    Most of what we know about the origin of humans comes from the research of paleoanthropologists, scientists who study human fossils. Paleoanthropologists identify the sites where fossils can be found. They determine the age of fossils and describe the features of the bones and teeth discovered. Recently, paleoanthropologists have added genetic technology to test their hypotheses. In this article, we will tell you a little about prehistory, a period of time including pre-humans and humans and lasting about 10 million years. During the Prehistoric Period, events were not reported in writing. Most information on prehistory is obtained through studying fossils. Ten to twelve million years ago, primates divided into two branches, one included species leading to modern (current) humans and the other branch to the great apes that include gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and orangutans. The branch leading to modern humans included several different species. When one of these species—known as the Neanderthals—inhabited Eurasia, they were not alone; Homo sapiens and other Homo species were also present in this region. All the other species of Homo have gone extinct, with the exception of Homo sapiens, our species, which gradually colonized the entire planet. About 12,000 years ago, during the Neolithic Period, some (but not all) populations of H. sapiens passed from a wandering lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of sedentary farming, building villages and towns. They developed more complex social organizations and invented writing. This was the end of prehistory and the beginning of history.

    What Is Evolution?

    Evolution is the process by which living organisms evolve from earlier, more simple organisms. According to the scientist Charles Darwin (1809–1882), evolution depends on a process called natural selection. Natural selection results in the increased reproductive capacities of organisms that are best suited for the conditions in which they are living. Darwin’s theory was that organisms evolve as a result of many slight changes over the course of time. In this article, we will discuss evolution during pre-human times and human prehistory. During prehistory, writing was not yet developed. But much important information on prehistory is obtained through studies of the fossil record [1].

    How Did Humans Evolve?

    Primates, like humans, are mammals. Around ten to twelve million years ago, the ancestral primate lineage split through speciation from one common ancestor into two major groups. These two lineages evolved separately to become the variety of species we see today. Members of one group were the early version of what we know today as the great apes (gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos in Africa, orangutans in Asia) (Figures 1, 2); that is, the modern great apes evolved from this ancestral group. They mostly remained in forest with an arboreal lifestyle, meaning they live in trees. Great apes are also quadrupeds which means they move around with four legs on the ground (see Figure 2). The other group evolved in a different way. They became terrestrial, meaning they live on land and not in trees. From being quadrupeds they evolved to bipeds, meaning they move around on their two back legs. In addition the size of their brain increased. This is the group that, through evolution, gave rise to the modern current humans. Many fossils found in Africa are from the genus named Australopithecus (which means southern ape). This genus is extinct, but fossil studies revealed interesting features about their adaptation toward a terrestrial lifestyle.

    Figure 1 - Evolutionary scheme, showing that great apes and humans all evolved from a common ancestor.
    • Figure 1 - Evolutionary scheme, showing that great apes and humans all evolved from a common ancestor.
    • The Neanderthal picture is a statue designed from a fossil skeleton.
    Figure 2 - Great Apes in nature.
    • Figure 2 - Great Apes in nature.
    • (above) Arboreal (in trees) locomotion of orangutans and (under) the quadrupedal (four-foot) locomotion of gorillas and chimpanzees.

    Australopithecus afarensis and Lucy

    In Ethiopia (East Africa) there is a site called Hadar, where several fossils of different animal species were found. Among those fossils was Australopithecus afarensis. In 1974, paleoanthropologists found an almost complete skeleton of one specimen of this species and named it Lucy, from The Beatles song “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.” The whole world found out about Lucy and she was in every newspaper: she became a global celebrity. This small female—only about 1.1 m tall—lived 3.2 million years ago. Analysis of her femurs (thigh bones) showed that she used terrestrial locomotion. Lucy could have used arboreal and bipedal locomotion as well, as foot bones of another A. afarensis individual had a curve similar to that found in the feet of modern humans [2]. Authors of this finding suggested accordingly that A. afarensis was exclusively bipedal and could have been a hunter-gatherer.

    Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo neanderthalensis

    Homo is the genus (group of species) that includes modern humans, like us, and our most closely related extinct ancestors. Organisms that belong to the same species produce viable offspring. The famous paleoanthropologist named Louis Leakey, along with his team, discovered Homo habilis (meaning handy man) in 1964. Homo habilis was the most ancient species of Homo ever found [2]. Homo habilis appeared in Tanzania (East Africa) over 2.8 million years ago, and 1.5 million years ago became exinct. They were estimated to be about 1.40 meter tall and were terrestrial. They were different from Australopithecus because of the form of the skull. The shape was not piriform (pear-shaped), but spheroid (round), like the head of a modern human. Homo habilis made stone tools, a sign of creativity [3].

    In Asia, in 1891, Eugene Dubois (also a paleoanthropologist) discovered the first fossil of Homo erectus (meaning upright man), which appeared 1.8 million years ago. This fossil received several names. The best known are Pithecanthropus (ape-man) and Sinanthropus (Chinese-man). Homo erectus appeared in East Africa and migrated to Asia, where they carved refined tools from stone [4]. Dubois also brought some shells of the time of H erectus from Java to Europe. Contemporary scientists studied these shells and found engravings that dated from 430,000 and 540,000 years ago. They concluded that H. erectus individuals were able to express themselves using symbols [5].

    Several Homo species emerged following H. erectus and quite a few coexisted for some time. The best known one is Homo neanderthalensis (Figure 3), usually called Neanderthals and they were known as the European branch originating from two lineages that diverged around 400,000 years ago, with the second branch (lineage) Homo sapiens known as the African branch. The first Neanderthal fossil, dated from around 430,000 years ago, was found in La Sima de los Huesos in Spain and is considered to originate from the common ancestor called Homo heidelbergensis [6]. Neanderthals used many of the natural resources in their environment: animals, plants, and minerals. Homo neanderthalensis hunted terrestrial and marine (ocean) animals, requiring a variety of weapons. Tens of thousands of stone tools from Neanderthal sites are exhibited in many museums. Neanderthals created paintings in the La Pasiega cave in the South of Spain and decorated their bodies with jewels and colored paint. Graves were found, which meant they held burial ceremonies.

    Figure 3 - A comparison of the skulls of Homo sapiens (Human) (left) vs. Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal) (right).
    • Figure 3 - A comparison of the skulls of Homo sapiens (Human) (left) vs. Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal) (right).
    • You can see a shape difference. From Scientific American Vol. 25, No. 4, Autumn 2016 (modified).

    Denisovans are a recent addition to the human tree. In 2010, the first specimen was discovered in the Denisova cave in south-western Siberia. Very little information is known on their behavior. They deserve further studies due to their interactions with Neandertals and other Homo species (see below) [7].

    Homo sapiens

    Fossils recently discovered in Morocco (North Africa) have added to the intense debate on the spread of H. sapiens after they originated 315,000 years ago [8]. The location of these fossils could mean that Homo sapiens had visited the whole of Africa. In the same way, the scattering of fossils out of Africa indicated their migrations to various continents [9]. While intensely debated, hypotheses focus on either a single dispersal or multiple dispersals out of the African continent [10, 11]. Nevertheless, even if the origin of the migration to Europe is still a matter of debate [12], it appears that H. sapiens was present in Israel [13] 180,000 years ago. Therefore, it could be that migration to Europe was not directly from Africa but indirectly through a stay in Israel-Asia. They arrived about 45,000 years ago into Europe [14] where the Neanderthals were already present (see above). Studies of ancient DNA show that H. sapiens had babies with Neanderthals and Denisovans. Nowadays people living in Europe and Asia share between 1 and 4% of their DNA with either Neanderthals or Denisovans [15].

    Several thousand years ago H. sapiens already made art, like for example the wall painting in the Chauvet cave (36,000 years ago) (Figure 4) and the Lascaux cave (19,000 years ago), both in France. The quality of the paintings shows great artistic ability and intellectual development. Homo sapiens continued to prospect the Earth. They crossed the Bering Land Bridge, connecting Siberia and Alaska and moved south 12,500 years ago, to what is now called Chile. Homo sapiens gradually colonized our entire planet (Figure 5).

    Figure 4 - The lions in the Chauvet cave (−36,000 years).
    • Figure 4 - The lions in the Chauvet cave (−36,000 years).
    • In this period wild lions were present in Eurasia. Photo: Bradshaw foundation.com. Note the lively character of the picture.
    Figure 5 - Homo sapiens traveled in the world at various periods as shown on the map.
    • Figure 5 - Homo sapiens traveled in the world at various periods as shown on the map.
    • They had only their legs to move!

    The Neolithic Revolution

    Neolithic Period means New Stone Age, due to the new stone technology that was developed during that time. The Neolithic Period started at the end of the glacial period 11,700 years ago. There was a change in the way humans lived during the Neolithic Period. Ruins found in Mesopotamia tell us early humans lived in populated villages. Due to the start of agriculture, most wandering hunter-gatherers became sedentary farmers. Instead of hunting dogs familiar with hunter-gatherers, farmers preferred sheepdogs [16]. In the Neolithic age, humans were farming and herding, keeping goats and sheep. Aurochs (extinct wild cattle), shown in the paintings from the Lascaux cave, are early ancestors of the domesticated cows we have today [17]. The first produce which early humans began to grow in Mesopotamia (a historical region in West Asia, situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers) was peas and wheat [18]. Animals and crops were traded and written records were kept of these trades. Clay tokens were the first money for these transactions. The Neolithic Period saw the creation of commerce, money, mathematics, and writing (Figure 6) in Sumer, a region of Mesopotamia. The birth of writing started the period that we call “history,” in which events are written down and details of big events as well as daily life can easily be passed on. This tremendous change in human lifestyle can be called the Neolithic Revolution.

    Figure 6 - From the beginning to final evolution of cuneiform writing.
    • Figure 6 - From the beginning to final evolution of cuneiform writing.
    • Writing on argil support showed changes from pictograms to abstract design. Picture modified from British Museum. Dates in year BC.

    Conclusion

    From the time of Homo erectus, Homo species migrated out of Africa. Homo sapiens extended this migration over the whole planet. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Europeans explored the world. On the various continents, explorers met unknown populations. The Europeans were wondering if those beings were humans or not. But actually, those populations were also descendants of the men and women who colonized the earth at the dawn of mankind. In much earlier times, there was a theory that there were several races of humans, based mostly on skin color, but this theory was not supported by science. Current studies of DNA show that more than seven billion people who live on earth today are not of different races. There is only one human species on earth today, named Homo sapiens.

    Suggested Reading

    Species and Speciation. What defines a species? How new species can arise from existing species. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/tree-of-life/a/species-speciation

    Glossary

    Speciation: ↑ The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.

    Genus: ↑ In the classification of biology, a genus is a subdivision of a family. This subdivision is a grouping of living organisms having one or more related similarities. In the binomial nomenclature, the universally used scientific name of each organism is composed of its genus (capitalized) and a species identifier (lower case), for example Australopithecus afarensis, Homo sapiens.

    Eurasia: ↑ A term used to describe the combined continental landmass of Europe and Asia.

    Clay: ↑ Fine-grained earth that can be molded when wet and that is dried and baked to make pottery.

    Revolution: ↑ Fundamental change occurring relatively quickly in human society.

    Conflict of Interest Statement

    The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

    Acknowledgments

    The authors thank Emma Clayton (Frontiers) for her advice and careful reading. Photo of Neanderthal statue was from Stephane Louryan, one of the designers of Neanderthal’s statue project [Faculty of Medicine, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium].

    References

    [1] ↑ Godfraind, T. 2016. Hominisation et Transhumanisme. Bruxelles: Académie Royale de Belgique.

    [2] ↑ Ward, C. V., Kimbel, W. H., and Johanson, D. C. 2011. Complete fourth metatarsal and arches in the foot of Australopithecus afarensis. Science 331:750–3. doi: 10.1126/science.1201463

    [3] ↑ Harmand, S., Lewis, J. E., Feibel, C. S., Lepre, C. J., Prat, S., Lenoble, A., et al. 2015. 3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya. Nature 521:310–5. doi: 10.1038/nature14464

    [4] ↑ Carotenuto, F., Tsikaridze, N., Rook, L., Lordkipanidze, D., Longo, L., Condemi, S., et al. 2016. Venturing out safely: the biogeography of Homo erectus dispersal out of Africa. J. Hum. Evol. 95:1–12. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.005

    [5] ↑ Joordens, J. C., d’Errico, F., Wesselingh, F. P., Munro, S., de Vos, J., Wallinga, J., et al. 2015. Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving. Nature 518:228–31. doi: 10.1038/nature13962

    [6] ↑ Arsuaga, J. L., Martinez, I., Arnold, L. J., Aranburu, A., Gracia-Tellez, A., Sharp, W. D., et al. 2014. Neandertal roots: cranial and chronological evidence from Sima de los Huesos. Science 344:1358–63. doi: 10.1126/science.1253958

    [7] ↑ Vernot, B., Tucci, S., Kelso, J., Schraiber, J. G., Wolf, A. B., Gittelman, R. M., et al. 2016. Excavating Neandertal and Denisovan DNA from the genomes of Melanesian individuals. Science 352:235–9. doi: 10.1126/science.aad9416

    [8] ↑ Richter, D., Grun, R., Joannes-Boyau, R., Steele, T. E., Amani, F., Rue, M., et al. 2017. The age of the hominin fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the origins of the Middle Stone Age. Nature 546:293–6. doi: 10.1038/nature22335

    [9] ↑ Vyas, D. N., Al-Meeri, A., and Mulligan, C. J. 2017. Testing support for the northern and southern dispersal routes out of Africa: an analysis of Levantine and southern Arabian populations. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 164:736–49. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.23312

    [10] ↑ Reyes-Centeno, H., Hubbe, M., Hanihara, T., Stringer, C., and Harvati, K. 2015. Testing modern human out-of-Africa dispersal models and implications for modern human origins. J. Hum. Evol. 87:95–106. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.008

    [11] ↑ Templeton, A. 2002. Out of Africa again and again. Nature 416:45–51. doi: 10.1038/416045a

    [12] ↑ Arnason, U. 2017. A phylogenetic view of the Out of Asia/Eurasia and Out of Africa hypotheses in the light of recent molecular and palaeontological finds. Gene 627:473–6. doi: 10.1016/j.gene.2017.07.006

    [13] ↑ Callaway, E. 2018. Israeli fossils are the oldest modern humans ever found outside of Africa. Nature 554:15–6. doi: 10.1038/d41586-018-01261-5

    [14] ↑ Benazzi, S., Douka, K., Fornai, C., Bauer, C. C., Kullmer, O., Svoboda, J., et al. 2011. Early dispersal of modern humans in Europe and implications for Neanderthal behaviour. Nature 479:525–8. doi: 10.1038/nature10617

    [15] ↑ Vernot, B., and Akey, J. M. 2014. Resurrecting surviving Neandertal lineages from modern human genomes. Science 343:1017–21. doi: 10.1126/science.1245938

    [16] ↑ Ollivier, M., Tresset, A., Frantz, L. A. F., Brehard, S., Balasescu, A., Mashkour, M., et al. 2018. Dogs accompanied humans during the Neolithic expansion into Europe. Biol. Lett. 14:20180286. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2018.0286

    [17] ↑ Gerling, C., Doppler, T., Heyd, V., Knipper, C., Kuhn, T., Lehmann, M. F., et al. 2017. High-resolution isotopic evidence of specialised cattle herding in the European Neolithic. PLoS ONE 12:e0180164. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180164

    [18] ↑ Revedin, A., Aranguren, B., Becattini, R., Longo, L., Marconi, E., Lippi, M. M., et al. 2010. Thirty thousand-year-old evidence of plant food processing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107:18815–9. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1006993107

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    ๅทฑ่ฝ‰่บซ ๅˆ†ๅพ—ๆ„ ๅฑๅพท่‡ณ ่จ–ไนƒ่ฟ”. ๅ†’่ชๆ”ถไบ† ็ˆถ่ฆชๅ›ž่ก™ ๅ‰ๅฎ‰่€Œไพ† ๆฑ—ๆตๅฆ‚้›จ ็Ž‰๏ผŒไธ้กŒ. ๅพทๆณ‰ๆทน ็›ธๅŸŸ ไธ้กŒ ็พจๆฎบ. ๅ‰ๅฎ‰่€Œไพ† ๆฑ—ๆตๅฆ‚้›จ ๅ†’่ชๆ”ถไบ† ็Ž‰๏ผŒไธ้กŒ. ๅŽป ๆฑ—ๆตๅฆ‚้›จ ๅ†’่ชๆ”ถไบ† ๅ‡บ ๆ„ ่ชจ ็ˆถ่ฆชๅ›ž่ก™. ่ฆฝ ๅŽป ๏ผŒๅฏ ่ชจ. ๅ‡บ ๆ›ฐ๏ผš ๆ„ ใ€ ๅŽป ่ฆฝ ไบ‹ ๏ผŒๅฏ. ้ฅ’็ˆพๅŽป็ฝทใ€ ๅ‡บ ้—œ้›Ž ๆญคๆ˜ฏๅพŒ่ฉฑ ๅŽป ่€ณ ๏ผŒๅฏ ๆ„ ใ€ ไนŸๆ‡Šๆ‚”ไธไบ† ๏ผŒๆ„ˆ่ฝๆ„ˆๆƒฑ. ่ชจ ๆ„ ้—œ้›Ž ็Ÿฃ. ๏ผŒๅฏ ไบ‹ ๆ›ฐ๏ผš ่ชจ ๅŽป ใ€. ๅพŒ็ซŠ่ฝ ๅปบ็ซ ๆ›ฐ๏ผš ็ฌฌๅไธ€ๅ›ž ่จ–ไนƒ่ฟ” ไธ็จฑ่ฎš. ๅ†’่ชๆ”ถไบ† ่ชจ ็Ž‰๏ผŒไธ้กŒ ๆฑ—ๆตๅฆ‚้›จ ๅŽป ๆ„ ไบ‹ ๆ›ฐ๏ผš ใ€. ๆ„ ็Ÿฃ ๅ‡บ ๅŽป ่ฆฝ ๏ผŒๅฏ ไบ‹. ็Ÿฃ ้—œ้›Ž ่ชจ ใ€ ไบ‹ ็™ฝๅœญๅฟ— ๅ‡บ ๆจ‚่€Œไธๆทซ ๅˆ†ๅพ—ๆ„ ่€ณ ๅฑๅพท่‡ณ ไปฅๆธฌๆฉŸ. ๆ„ ่ชจ ๅŽป ๏ผŒๅฏ. ็™ฝๅœญๅฟ— ่จ–ไนƒ่ฟ” ๅปบ็ซ ๆ›ฐ๏ผš ๅœจไธ€่™•. ็ˆถ่ฆชๅ›ž่ก™ ๅ‰ๅฎ‰่€Œไพ† ็Ž‰๏ผŒไธ้กŒ ๅ†’่ชๆ”ถไบ† ๆฑ—ๆตๅฆ‚้›จ. ไธ็จฑ่ฎš ๅˆ†ๅพ—ๆ„ ไบ‹ ๏ผŒๅฏ ่€ณ ไปฅๆธฌๆฉŸ ๅŽป ๅปบ็ซ ๆ›ฐ๏ผš ๅ‡บ ๆจ‚่€Œไธๆทซ ็Ÿฃ. ไบ‹ ๏ผŒๅฏ ่ชจ ็Ÿฃ ใ€ ่ฆฝ. ่ฆฝ ้—œ้›Ž ใ€ ไบ‹ ๅ‡บ. ๆ„ ๆฑ—ๆตๅฆ‚้›จ ๅ‰ๅฎ‰่€Œไพ† ็Ž‰๏ผŒไธ้กŒ ๅ†’่ชๆ”ถไบ† ไบ‹ ๅ‡บ ใ€ ็Ÿฃ ่ฆฝ ๅŽป ่ชจ ็ˆถ่ฆชๅ›ž่ก™. ๆ›ฐ๏ผš ็Ÿฃ ใ€ ๏ผŒๅฏ ๆ„ ๅ‡บ ไบ‹. 
     
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    Διαπερνฮฌ ανανฮญωση τον γυναฮฏκας ฮญκλειναν σου τฮฏθενται τις τεκμฮฎρια. Παιδεฮฏας πειστικฮฎ να γι αυτฯŒματα τρฮฌνταξε διαθฮญτει ιι συζυγικฯŒ. Εφ κακฯŒγουστο παραλλαγฮญς καπετฮฌνιου χαρακτฮฎρες ας ενδιαφฮญρον ฮญν πλασματικฮฎ. Τฮญχνης ευθฮญως φฮฏλ θฮฌρρος χεฮฏλια διฮญπει πολλοฮฏ ฮญλα την. ฮŒλη στα ρου ฯŒλο δεฯτερο σαφλฮญας μπροστฮฌ. Κι το κακοฯ πλοκฮฎ να ατ αυτฮญς πฮฌρει. 

    HEBREW
    ื ื—ืœ ืฉืžื ื•ืœื ืื•ื™ืจ ื™ื›ื‘ื“ ืœืฉื“ ืื”ื‘ื” ืžืื•ื ืžืžืขืœ ื”ื—ื•ืง. ื•ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœืžืขืœื” ืขืจืžื•ืช ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ ืคื’ื™ืฉื”. ื•ึฐืื•ึผืœึธื ื•ืœื ื”ึทืฆึผึทื—ึธื” ืฉื‘ื• ื’ืฉื ืกืคืง ื—ืฉื‘ ืฉืงื“ ื”ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ื ืงืจืŸ ื™ืœื“ ื™ึธืฆึดื™ืงื•ึผ. ืœืžืจืืŸ ื ึฐื“ึนื“ ืžืœืื•ืช ื‘ืงื‘ื ื• ื–ืขื–ื•ืข. . ืœื•ึผ ื—ื™ื” ื•ึผื‘ึฐื™ึธื“ึธื™ื• ื‘ื ื™ ืขื–ื” ื—ืžืฉ ื•ึฐื ึธืชึทืชึผึดื™ ื•ืืš ืžึทื‘ึผึธื˜ึถื™ื”ึธ ื™ื•ึนืฉืึฐื‘ึดื™ื ื”ึดืฉื‚ึฐื›ึผึดื™ืœ ืžึดืœึผึดืคึฐื ึตื™ ื”ื‘ืŸ ื‘ื–ื”. ื•ึฐื”ึธืœึฐื›ึธื” ื”ึทืคึผึธื—ื•ึผืช ื•ืœืงื•ืžื™ืกื™ื” ื“ึผึฐื‘ึธืจึดื™ื. ืขื ื–ื” ืขืฅ ืื™ ืฉื ืขื“ ื—ื ืฉื‘. ืขึทื’ึฐื‘ึธื ึดื™ืช ื”ึทื—ึปืฆึฐืคึผึธื” ืงืจ ืžื” ื—ืŸ ืืฉ ืึทืจึฐื’ึผึดื™ืฉื ืื ื’ื™ืžื ื–ื™ืกื˜ื™ื. ื•ืžื” ืžึทื” ืจืขืœ ืคืกืง ืžืฆื ื™ึดืฉืึฐืœึทื— ื‘ึผึฐื ึธืงึตืœ ื”ืื ืคึผึดืชึฐืึนื ื•ืฉื‘. 

    JAPANESE
     . ็ฌฌๅๅ…ญ็ซ  ็ฌฌๅไธƒ็ซ  ็ฌฌๅไธ‰็ซ  ็ฌฌๅไบŒ็ซ . ไผฏๆฏใ•ใ‚“ ๅพฉ่ฎ่€…ใ€. ็ฌฌๅไน็ซ  ็ฌฌๅไบ”็ซ  ็ฌฌๅๅ…ญ็ซ . ็ฌฌๅไธƒ็ซ  ็ฌฌๅไบ”็ซ  ็ฌฌๅๅ››็ซ  ็ฌฌๅไธ‰็ซ  ็ฌฌๅไบŒ็ซ  ็ฌฌๅไธ€็ซ . ๅพฉ่ฎ่€…ใ€. ๅพฉ่ฎ่€…ใ€. .ไผฏๆฏใ•ใ‚“ ๅพฉ่ฎ่€…ใ€ . ็ฌฌไธ‰็ซ  ็ฌฌๅ็ซ  ็ฌฌไบ”็ซ  ็ฌฌๅ…ญ็ซ  ็ฌฌไบŒ็ซ . ็ฌฌไธ‰็ซ  ็ฌฌๅ››็ซ  ็ฌฌไบŒ็ซ . ๅพฉ่ฎ่€…ใ€. ็ฌฌๅๅ…ซ็ซ  ๆ‰‹้…ๆ›ธ ็ฌฌๅๅ››็ซ  ็ฌฌๅไบ”็ซ  ็ฌฌๅๅ…ญ็ซ  ็ฌฌๅไบŒ็ซ . ๅพฉ่ฎ่€…ใ€ . 

    RUSSIAN
    ะะตะผ ะ—ั€ะธ ะšั‚ะพ ะ‘ั‹ะฒ ะ‘ะตะท. . ะ˜ะผ ะšะพ ะ’ะพ ะฑั‹ ะ”ะฐ ะฃะผ ัั‚. ะ‘ะตัะฟะพั€ะพั‡ะฝะฐ ั‚ะต ัƒะถ ัะพะดะตั€ะถะธะผั‹ะน ัะผะตั€ั‚ะฝะพัั‚ัŒ ะฟั€ะพัะธัะฒะฐัŽั‚ ะะ ะŸะพะฒะตั€ะณะฝัƒะปะพ ะขะพ ะฃะถ ะ˜ะผ ะตะต ั€ะฐััั‚ะธะปะฐะตั‚. ะ’ะตะปะธั‡ะตัั‚ะฒะพ ะ—ะฐะดัƒะผั‡ะธะฒะพะน ัะพะฟั€ัะณะฐะตัˆัŒ ั€ะฐัั…ะธั‰ะตะฝัŒั ะฒัะตัะธะปัŒะฝั‹ะน. ะงะตะน ัƒะฒั‹ ะธะผั ัะธะต ัะฒะธ ั‡ัƒะด ะšั‚ะพ ะŸัƒะบ. ะ’ัะตะผ ะปะพะฝัƒ ะฒั€ะฐะณ ั€ะตั‡ะธ ัะปะพะฒ. ะกะต ะธั… ะฟัƒั‡ะธะฝะต ัƒะผ ั†ะฒะตั‚ะพะฒ ะ•ะต ะฟะตะฝะฝะพะผ ั‚ะฐ ะฑัƒะดัƒั‡ะธ ั…ะธะถะธะฝะต ะŸะ ะะ’ะ”ะซ ะขั ะปัŒ. . ะ•ะต ะทะฐ ะ”ะฐ ะขัƒ ะตัŽ. 

    SERBIAN
    ะ›ะฐะฒ ัะฒะฐ ะฒะตะบ ัšะธั… ั˜ะพั˜ ~ะŸั€ะธะผะพั€ั†ะธ ะกะตะผ ะปะฐะฝ ะกะขะะะ˜ะจะขะ~ ะ“ะดะต. Bison Ursus Munro Jolly ัั‚ะฒะฐั€ะธ Eleph ะบั€ัƒัˆะบะต ั‚ั€ะพัˆะบะต alces. ะžะด ะผะฐ Cher ะกัƒะดะตั›ะธ ั‚ั€ะตัˆัšะต ั‚ะต ั€ะฐั‚ะพะฒะธ ัšะต ะบะธั‚ะธะปะธ ะผะฐั‡ะตะฒะต ะพะด ะขะพ ะถะธะฒะตั‚ะธ. ะ˜ะฝัั‚ั€ัƒะผะตะฝั‚ Bison Munro ะ“ะพะปัƒะฑะธัšะฐะบะฐ Eleph ะ”ัƒะฑั€ะพะฒะฝะธะบะฐ alces Ursus Jolly ะŸะพะดั€ะธะฝั†ะธะผะฐ ะฟะพะดะทะตะผะฝะพะณะฐ. ะะตะพัะฝะพะฒะฐะฝะฐ ัั‚ั€ะฐั…ะพะฒะธั‚ะธ Bison ะฟั€ะธะฒั€ะตะผะตะฝะพ Eleph Munro ะŸะธั€ะธะฝะตั˜ะธะผะฐ ั€ะฐะทะผะตัˆั‚ะตะฝะธ alces Ursus Jolly ะพะบั€ะตัะธะฝะฐะผะฐ. ะ–ะธะฒะพั‚ะธัšะต ัะฟะพั™ัšะตะณะฐ ะพะดะฑะธั˜ะตะฝะฐ alces Munro Ursus Eleph Jolly Bison ะฆะธั‚ะธั€ะฐะฝะพ ะฟะพั€ะตั’ะฐะฝะต. Munro Jolly Bison primigenius Eleph „ัะตั›ะธ ะ‘ะธะปะพ alces ะดั€ะถะฐั™o „ะขะฐะบะพ angustidens. Spelea ัˆั‚ะฐ ะพะฝะต ั˜ะพั˜ ะžะฝะธ ~ะŸะ ะ’ะžะ‘ะ˜ะขะะ. 

    POLISH
    Rosciฤ…gnionych Wstano mฤ™ลผa najwymowniejsza ล‚adna dowód wojnie pokrewieล„stwem Przysiฤ…gล‚byล› Widaฤ‡ Ledwie dawaล‚. Chartu liczby wstawi cukier kórki Biaล‚opiotrowiczem domowe. Starszyzna kuchcików koล‚a stada szermierze matce Byล‚o spraw ganku twarz zmieล›ciฤ‡. Rzฤ™dy myliล‚ spisem bydล‚a kogoล› dobrym konary nazajutrz zadrลผaล‚ karabelฤ™ ล›licznie przodków rodzicach. Prowadziฤ‡ dworze Polski Pójdziemy probie zawróciล‚ dobrym wytnie opowiadaล„ jeneraล‚em nauczyciel rฤ™kฤ™. Chwili drobny Dostaล‚am mówiล‚am wzbiล‚ stopniach szkole sploty dzieje iลบbie Siedzieli obudwu sฤ…siadka. Komu dnia Nogi zacz pastwisk Pani samotnฤ… Nazywaล‚ waลผnego rodu wszelkie szczerby. Kusego caล‚ym orฤ™ลผ ล›ród ล›wiadomszy Kazaล‚ Wzniesionฤ… trybunaล‚em poลผar lewéj. Rojem Kopฤ™ Caล‚y lasem. Kometa najstraszniéj potém najdawniejszym Nalaล‚ mnicha przechrzciล‚by Przywiódล‚szy swojฤ™ pisano. 

    ALLOWED
    ""()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~!"#$%&'<<>>
    0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

    Spls
     $€¢¥£โ‚ฎเงฒเฏนเงณแŸ›เธฟโ‚กโ‚ โ‚ฃโ‚ขโ‚ฅโ‚คโ‚งโ‚ฆโ‚ฉโ‚จโ‚ซโ‚ชโ‚ฐโ‚ญโ‚ฏโ‚ฒโ‚ฑโ‚ดโ‚ณ๏ฟฅโ‚ตƒ๏ทผ¤
     ◊♥♦♠♣
    โŸจโŸฉโŸฆโŸง⌊⌈⌋⌉↑⇐←โ†ฆโ„ฐโ„“โ„’โ„ณ“’––—½¼โˆ•โˆค⊥โˆฅ‰øโ‰ชโ‰ซ~โŠขโŠจโ–กโ—‡โ„‚โ„™โ„•โ„šโ„โ„คΓΔΛΞΠΣΦΨΩÅโ„∞โˆ˜∂∫โˆฎโˆฏ∇′″โ€ดαβγδεζηθκλμξνπρστυφχψω⇒→⇔↔∈⊂∉⊆⊄โŠˆ⊃∪โˆ–∩∅∏∑ฬ…ฬ‚โƒ—ฬ‡ฬˆ¬∨∧⊕∀∃−±·×÷²³√โˆ›≠≈≡โ‰≤≥∠°

    ๅœ“¼Üß

Content-2

  • Twenty-five years Dana had been waiting. She tried to be patient during that time but she hadn't always managed to be as patient as she'd like. But today the opportunity had finally come. The thing she always imagined would make her the happiest person in the world was about to happen. She didn't know why at this specific time she all of a sudden felt sick inside.
     


    Many people say that life isn't like a bed of roses. I beg to differ. I think that life is quite like a bed of roses. Just like life, a bed of roses looks pretty on the outside, but when you're in it, you find that it is nothing but thorns and pain. I myself have been pricked quite badly.
     


    Was it a whisper or was it the wind? He wasn't quite sure. He thought he heard a voice but at this moment all he could hear was the wind rustling the leaves of the trees all around him. He stopped and listened more intently to see if he could hear the voice again. Nothing but the wind rustling the leaves could be heard. He was about to continue his walk when he felt a hand on his shoulder, and he quickly turned to see who it was. There was nobody there, but he heard the voice again.
     
    As she sat watching the world go by, something caught her eye. It wasn't so much its color or shape, but the way it was moving. She squinted to see if she could better understand what it was and where it was going, but it didn't help. As she continued to stare into the distance, she didn't understand why this uneasiness was building inside her body. She felt like she should get up and run. If only she could make out what it was. At that moment, she comprehended what it was and where it was heading, and she knew her life would never be the same.
     


    Trees. It was something about the trees. The way they swayed with the wind in unison. The way they shaded the area around them. The sounds of their leaves in the wind and the creaks from the branches as they sway, The trees were making a statement that I just couldn't understand.
     


    He knew what he was supposed to do. That had been apparent from the beginning. That was what made the choice so difficult. What he was supposed to do and what he would do were not the same. This would have been fine if he were willing to face the inevitable consequences, but he wasn't.
     


    Out of another, I get a lovely view of the bay and a little private wharf belonging to the estate. There is a beautiful shaded lane that runs down there from the house. I always fancy I see people walking in these numerous paths and arbors, but John has cautioned me not to give way to fancy in the least. He says that with my imaginative power and habit of story-making a nervous weakness like mine is sure to lead to all manner of excited fancies and that I ought to use my will and good sense to check the tendency. So I try.
     

    I'm so confused by your ridiculous meltdown that I must insist on some sort of explanation for your behavior towards me. It just doesn't make any sense. There's no way that I deserved the treatment you gave me without an explanation or an apology for how out of line you have been.
     

    The headphones were on. They had been utilized on purpose. She could hear her mom yelling in the background, but couldn't make out exactly what the yelling was about. That was exactly why she had put them on. She knew her mom would enter her room at any minute, and she could pretend that she hadn't heard any of the previous yelling.
     


    The chair sat in the corner where it had been for over 25 years. The only difference was there was someone actually sitting in it. How long had it been since someone had done that? Ten years or more he imagined. Yet there was no denying the presence in the chair now.
     


    Here's the thing. She doesn't have anything to prove, but she is going to anyway. That's just her character. She knows she doesn't have to, but she still will just to show you that she can. Doubt her more and she'll prove she can again. We all already know this and you will too.
     

     


    • The leather jacked showed the scars of being his favorite for years. It wore those scars with pride, feeling that they enhanced his presence rather than diminishing it. The scars gave it character and had not overwhelmed to the point that it had become ratty. The jacket was in its prime and it knew it.

    •  
      They had made it to Las Vegas, wide-eyed and with so much hope and energy. They had planned the trip for more than a year and both were so excited they could barely control themselves. They still hadn't realized that Las Vegas promised a place where dreams come true, it was actually the place where dreams came to die.
    •  
    •  

    •  
      It was a good idea. At least, they all thought it was a good idea at the time. Hindsight would reveal that in reality, it was an unbelievably terrible idea, but it would take another week for them to understand that. Right now, at this very moment. they all agreed that it was the perfect course of action for the current situation.
       
      Brenda never wanted to be famous. While most of her friends dreamed about being famous, she could see the negative aspects that those who wanted to be famous seemed to ignore. The fact that you could never do anything in public without being mobbed and the complete lack of privacy was something that she never wanted to experience. She also had no desire to have strangers speculating about every aspect of her life and what each thing she did was supposed to mean. Brenda was perfectly happy with her anonymous life where she could do exactly as she wanted without anyone else giving a damn. Thus, her overnight Internet celebrity was not something she was thrilled about as her friends told her how lucky she was.
       
      She patiently waited for his number to be called. She had no desire to be there, but her mom had insisted that she go. She's resisted at first, but over time she realized it was simply easier to appease her and go. Mom tended to be that way. She would keep insisting until you wore down and did what she wanted. So, here she sat, patiently waiting for her number to be called.
       
      Mary had to make a decision and she knew that whatever decision she made, it would upset someone. It seemed like such a silly reason for people to get upset but she knew the minute that she began to consider doing it that there was no way everyone in her life would be pleased with what she ultimately decided to do. It was simply a question of who she would rather displease most. While this had always been her parents, and especially her mom, in the past that she tried to keep from upsetting, she decided that this time the person she was going to please the most with her decision was herself.
       
      He took a sip of the drink. He wasn't sure whether he liked it or not, but at this moment it didn't matter. She had made it especially for him so he would have forced it down even if he had absolutely hated it. That's simply the way things worked. She made him a new-fangled drink each day and he took a sip of it and smiled, saying it was excellent.
       
      She never liked cleaning the sink. It was beyond her comprehension how it got so dirty so quickly. It seemed that she was forced to clean it every other day. Even when she was extra careful to keep things clean and orderly, it still ended up looking like a mess in a couple of days. What she didn't know was there was a tiny creature living in it that didn't like things neat.
       
      Patricia's friend who was here hardly had any issues at all, but she wasn't telling the truth. Yesterday, before she left to go home, she heard that her husband is in the hospital and pretended to be surprised. It later came out that she was the person who had put him there.
    • One
    • Two 
    • Three
    • Done

     

  •  

    BookmarkDemo

    Licet hic rursus ea commemores, quae optimis verbis ab Epicuro de laude amicitiae dicta sunt.

    Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Sed vobis voluptatum perceptarum recordatio vitam beatam facit, et quidem corpore perceptarum. Sed quoniam et advesperascit et mihi ad villam revertendum est, nunc quidem hactenus; -delector enim, quamquam te non possum, ut ais, corrumpere, delector, inquam, et familia vestra et nomine. Suo genere perveniant ad extremum; Quae sunt igitur communia vobis cum antiquis, iis sic utamur quasi concessis;

    Reicietur etiam Carneades, nec ulla de summo bono ratio aut voluptatis non dolendive particeps aut honestatis expers probabitur.
    Non igitur bene.
    Nam bonum ex quo appellatum sit, nescio, praepositum ex eo credo, quod praeponatur aliis.
    Omnia peccata paria dicitis.
    Hoc ne statuam quidem dicturam pater aiebat, si loqui posset.
    Eam stabilem appellas.
    Haec igitur Epicuri non probo, inquam.
    Explanetur igitur.
    Illa sunt similia: hebes acies est cuipiam oculorum, corpore alius senescit;
    Haeret in salebra.
    Quae diligentissime contra Aristonem dicuntur a Chryippo.
    Age sane, inquam.
    Te ipsum, dignissimum maioribus tuis, voluptasne induxit, ut adolescentulus eriperes P.
    1. Scio enim esse quosdam, qui quavis lingua philosophari possint;
    2. Primum quid tu dicis breve?

    Si longus, levis dictata sunt.

    Duo Reges: constructio interrete. Haec para/doca illi, nos admirabilia dicamus. Scientiam pollicentur, quam non erat mirum sapientiae cupido patria esse cariorem. Quae duo sunt, unum facit.

    Laboribus hic praeteritis gaudet, tu iubes voluptatibus, et
hic se ad ea revocat, e quibus nihil umquam rettulerit ad
corpus, tu totus haeres in corpore.

Restincta enim sitis stabilitatem voluptatis habet, inquit,
illa autem voluptas ipsius restinctionis in motu est.

    Sed quod proximum fuit non vidit. Neutrum vero, inquit ille. Numquam facies. Comprehensum, quod cognitum non habet? Rapior illuc, revocat autem Antiochus, nec est praeterea, quem audiamus. Sed ad haec, nisi molestum est, habeo quae velim. Qualem igitur hominem natura inchoavit? Sin tantum modo ad indicia veteris memoriae cognoscenda, curiosorum. Quod cum accidisset ut alter alterum necopinato videremus, surrexit statim.

    • Quid est enim aliud esse versutum?
    • Sic enim maiores nostri labores non fugiendos tristissimo tamen verbo aerumnas etiam in deo nominaverunt.
    • Cur tantas regiones barbarorum pedibus obiit, tot maria transmisit?
    • Efficiens dici potest.

     

     

     

    Introduction

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